The French Revolution and the Idea of Nation
During 19th century, nationalism emerged as a force which led the emergence of the nation-state in place of the mulcinational dynastic empires of Europe. The French Revolution (1789) paved the way for modern nation-state. French Revolution questioned the old monarchical order and encouraged the development of a popular nationalism.
To emphasise the nation as a united community the French Revolution introduced new ideas like Ja patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) and a new French flag amongst the French people. It introduced a centralised administrative system with uniform law for all citizens, Regional dialects were discouraged and French as spoken and written in, Paris was accepted as a common language of the country.
Napoleonic Code
Napoleon destroyed democracy in France, but he incorporated revolutionary principle by introducing the Civil Code of 1804, which came to be known as the Napoleonic code. The c de removed all privileges based on birth, established equaity before the law and secured the right to property, simplified, administrative divisions, abolished, the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. Guild system was removed and transport and communication system improved.
There was establishment of universal laws, standardised weights and measures and common national currency which benefieted each and every section of the Society.
The Making of Nationalism in Europe
Germany, ltaly and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons, in mid I1th century whose
rulers had their autonomous territories. They did not share a collective identicy of a commend culture. SomeSome important factors led w the rise of nationalism in Exrope. These are
- The rise of new middle class.
- The spread of the ideotogy of liberalism.
- The new spirit of conservation and the Treaty of Vienna.
- The rise of Revolutionaries.
The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class in the continent. They owned estates and property both in countryside and town houses. In Western and Central parts of Europe, there was an emergence of commercial classes whose existence was based on production fur the marker, Due to industrialisation, the new social groups – a working class population and middle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen, professionals came into being. It was atnong the educated, liberal middle clases, the idea of national unity gained popularity.
New Definition of Nation State given by Ernest Renan
Accordung to Emnest Renan, “Anation is the culmination of a long past of exsleavours, sacrifice and devotion”. A nation is large scale sahidarky, us exigence is 3 daily Plebiscite.
Meaning of Liberal Nationalism
Ideas of national unity in the early 19th century Europe were closely related tw the ideology of liberalism. For
the new middle classes, liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.
In France, the right to vote and two get elected was granted exclusively to property-owning person.
Men without properties and women were excluded from this right. In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for
the freedom of markets and the abolition of nosed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital. In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed which abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
A New Conservatism After 1815
Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were driven by spirit of conservation,
conservation beloved established traditional institutions of state and society – like edge thechurch, social hierarchies, property and family should be preserved. The European powers— like britain Prussia and Austria, who had ollective in Napoleon, met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for was hosted by the Austrian which and they drew up the Treaty of vienna a 1815
Major Points of the Treaty Of VISTO .
- The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to power. France ion the territories it had annexed under NaPokon
- A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent in expansion in future.
- Prussia was given important new territories on its Weston frontiers, while Austria was given control of Northern Italy.
- German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left untouched.
- In the East, Russia was given parr of Poland while Pnuaia was given a portion of Saxony.
- The main intention of the Congress was to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon and create a new conservative order in Europe. Conservative regimes set up in 1815, were autocratic. But liberal-nationalists opposed the monarchical forms that had been established after the Vienna Congress and believed that the creation of nation-state was necessary.
The Age of Revolutions : 1830-1848:
Liberalism and nationalism came to be increasingly associated with revolution in many regions of Europe such as the Italian and German stares, the provinces of Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland. The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels, which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The struggle for independence in Greece started in 1821 and the Treat” of Constantinople of 1832, recognised Greece as an independent nation.
The Emergence of Nationalist
Feelings of development of nationalism did not come The through wars and territorial stout?'” culture played an important role in the idea of the nation. Art and poetry, .4tingarui music helped express and shape the 000.11aus Sines. maaatic artists and poets criticised the don of reason and science. Focussing IPPa00 002sintu Won and mystical feelings, flied to ern ie a sense of a shared collective as a .is.of a nation. Romantic German philosopher Johann Gottfried Hear (1744-1803), claimed that true German 0,aure was to be discovered among the common people—das yolk. Poland which winger existed as an independent territory, keptnationalist feeling alive through music and
Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt
the 1830s were the years of great economic lordship in Europe. The first half of the 19th century saw an enormous increase in population all over the Europe. Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in Overcrowded slums. The misery of the workers in town was extreme. in 1845, weavers of Silesia village had led a revolt against contractors who supplied them ow material and gave them orders for finished textiles but drastically reduced their payments. On 4th June at 2 pm, a large crowd of weavers “‘Inched in pairs up to the mansion of their `ttittactor demanding higher wages. They were treakd with scorn and threats alternately by the e’ntrattor with the help of army. l “1848, food shortage and widespread oil”PloYment brought the population of Paris 4;11 the roads. Barricades were erected and At: Philippe was forced to flee. A National m151Y Proclaimed a republic and granted t1c• tadult males above 21 and guaranteed tight to work.
1848 : The Revolution of the Liberals
In other parts of Europe like Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for creation of a nation-state. This demand was based on Constitution, freedom of press and freedom of association, .
May Revolution
On 18th May, 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the Frankfurt
Parliament convened in the church of St Paul. They drafted a Constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a Parliament,
When the deputies offered the crown on these terms to Friedrich Wilhelm TV, King of Prussia, he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
The Parliament was dominated by the middle classes, who resisted the demands of workers and artisans and consequently lost their support. In the end, troops were called in and the assembly was forced to disband.
Issue of Political Rights to Women
The issue of extending political rights to wornen was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large
numbers of women had participated actively over the years. Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and had taken part in political movement. In 1848, conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements, but could not restore the old order, Serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the
Habsburg dominions and in Russia.
The Making of Germany and lialy
Unification of Germany
After 1848, nationalist sentiments often were promoted by conservative for capturing state power and political
domination over Europe. In Germany, nationalist feelings were widespread among middleclass, who in
1848, tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected
Parliament. Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Prussia’s Chief
Minister Otto von Bismarck was the architect of this process with the help of Prussian army and bureaticracy.
The major events that occurred at the time of unificaton of Germany were
- The war with Austria, Denmark and France running over 7 years ended with Prussian victory and completed
the process of unification, - On 18th January, 1871, an assembly comprising the princes of the German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers including the Chief Minister Orto von Bismarck, proclaimed the new German Empire headed by Kaiser William I of Prussia.
- The new state placed a strong emphasis on modernising the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany.
Unification of Italy
During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states. Our of which only ge Sardinia- Piedmont was Tuled by an Italian Prinetly House.
Contribution of Farnous Person
Famous personalities involved in unification, ly were
- Giuseppe Mazzini During the 183 seppe Mazzini had sought to put together a Cfherent programme for a Unitary Italian Republic, He formed two underground societies, first, young Italy in Marseilles and second, young Europe in Berne. Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.
Count Camillo de Cavour The unification of Italy awed much to the diplomacy of the Chief Minister
Cavour, who became the Prime Minister of Piedmont from 1852 to 1860. Through a tactful diplomatic
alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. - Count Camillo de Cavour The unification of Italy owed much to the diplomacy of the Chief Minister Cavour, who became the Prime Minister of Piedmont from 1852 to 1860. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
- Giuseppe Garibaldi He was a central figure in unification of Italy. In 1833, he met Martini endue joined the rung Italy movement. He participated a republican uprising in Piedmont in 1834. In igsian he supported Victor Emmanuel Il for his effort to unify the Italian states. In 1860, he led the famous • expedition of the thousand to South Italy with ite5 Red Shirt’ army. In 1867, he led the army to Ron* . to fight for Papal states where a French garrison was stationed. In 1870, France withdrew its troops and Papal states were finally joined to Italy.
Major Event Led to the Unification
Proclamation of United Italy In 1860, the army (remit troops and armed volunteers) marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanue/ II was proclaimed king of United Italy. The states of Tuscany, Modena, Parma and the Papal joined hands with Sardinia. By March 1860, the entire Central Italian stater were unanimously united with Piedmont. Rome became* part of Sardinia and in this way, the final unification of Italy, was also achieved in 1871.
The Growth of Great Britain
There was no British nation prior to the 18th century. The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British:
Isles were Ethnic ones like English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. The growth of Great Britain as nation-state can be understood sequentially with the points given below
- As the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence over the other nations of islands.
- The English Parliament, which has seized power from tht monarchy in 1688 at the end of a protracted conflict, wat
- the instrument through which a nation-state, with : England at its centre came to be forged,
Incorporation of Scotland in United Kingdom
The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain. It meant that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland, Hence, the British Parliament
was dominated by its English members.
Incorporation of Ireland
Ireland was treated in a similar way as was Scotland. [t aa ama A divided into Catholics and Protestants. The:
English supported the Protestants of Ireland to establish . their dominance over a largel i tgely Catholic country. The
revolt raised by Catholics was suppressed. ”
Visualising the Nation
ae in the 18th and 19th century found a way our y petsonifying nation, Nations were then portrayed as female figures. The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman in real life. The female figure became an allegory of the nation. In France, the female allegory was christened Marianne and Germania became the allegory of the German nation.
Nationalism and Imperialism
By the last quarter of the 19th century, the nationalism no longer retained its idealistic liberal democratic sentiment. During this period, nationalist sroups hecame increasingly intolerant with each other and were ready to start war.
Balkans : The Source of Nationalist Tension in Europe
The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia- Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro, whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.
A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman empire. The Balkan area became an area of intense conflict. Each power-Russia, Germany, England, Austro- Hungary was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans and extending its control over the area. This led toa series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.
TimeLine-)
Year Important Events
1789 The French Revolution occurred.
1797 Napoleon invaded Italy; Napoleonic wars began.
1804 Napoleonic. Code was introduced prohibiting privileges
based on birth. Upheld the equality before law.
1814-15 — Fall of Napoleon: the Vienna Peace Settlement
182] Greek struggle for independence began.
1824 English poet Lord Byron died. .
1831 Giuseppe Mazzini established Young Italy, An armed
rebellion against Russian rule toak place.
LRa1 An afmed rebellion against Russian rule took place,
18.42 Greece gained Independence. The Treaty of Constantinople,
1834 Zoliverein or the Customs Union was forrned in Prussia te
abolish tariff barriers,
1848 Revolutions in Europe: Artisans, industrial workers and peasants revolt against ecanomic hardships; middle classes démand Constitutions and representative governments; ltallans, Germans, Magyars, Poles, Czechs, etc demanded for nation-states.
1B59 Piedmont and France dafeated Austria.
1861 Victor Ermrmnanvel-ll of Pledmont-Sardinia became the king of Italy,
1859-1870 Unification of laly,
1866-1871 Unification of Germany.
187] The Prussian King, Wiliam | was proclaimed the German emperor.
Slavs nationalism gathered their force in the Habsburg and Ottaman empires,