NATURE OF LEARNING
- learning is a key process in human behaviour.
- It refers to a spectrum of changes that take place as a result of one’s experience.
- Learning defined as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced by experience”.
- One must remember that some behavioural changes occur due to the use of drugs, or fatigue these changes are temporary and They are not considered learning.
- Changes due to practice and experience, which are relatively permanent, are illustrative of learning.
Features of Learning
- The process of learning has certain distinctive characteristics.
- The first feature is that learning always involves some kinds of experience.
- We experience an event occurring in a certain sequence on a number of occasions.
- If an event happens then it may be followed by certain other events.
- They must be distinguished from the behavioural changes that are neither permanent nor learned.
- The change due to continuous exposure to stimuli is called habituation and It is not due to learning
- Learning involves a sequence of psychological events.
- learning is an inferred process and is different from performance.
- Performance is a person’s observed behaviour or response or action
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
- This type of learning was first investigated by Ivan P. Pavlov.
- He was primarily interested in the physiology of digestion.
- It is obvious that the learning situation in classical conditioning is one of S–S learning in which one stimulus becomes a signal of another stimulus
- Here one stimulus signifies the possible occurrence of another stimulus.
- This happens because of contiguous presentation of balloon as a conditioned stimulus (CS) and loud noise
as an unconditioned stimulus (US).
Determinants of Classical Conditioning
Time Relations between Stimuli
- When the CS and US are presented together, it is called simultaneous conditioning.
- In delayed conditioning, the onset of CS precedes the onset of US. The CS ends before the end of the US.
- In trace conditioning, the onset and end of the CS precedes the onset of US with some time gap between the two.
- In backward conditioning, the US precedes the onset of CS.
- It is now well established that delayed conditioning procedure is the most effective way of acquiring a CR.
- Simultaneous and trace conditioning procedures do lead to acquisition of a CR, but they require greater number of acquisition trials in comparison to the delayed conditioning procedure.
- It may be noted that the acquisition of response under backward conditioning procedure is very rare.
Type of Unconditioned Stimuli
- The unconditioned stimuli used in studies of classical conditioning are basically of two types, i.e. appetitive and aversive. Appetitive unconditioned stimuli automatically elicits approach responses, such as eating, drinking,
caressing, etc. - These responses give satisfaction and pleasure.
- aversive US are painful, harmful, and elicit avoidance and escape responses. I
- t has been found that appetitive classical conditioning is slower and requires greater number of acquisition trials, but aversive classical conditioning is established in one, two or three trials depending on the
intensity of the aversive US.
Intensity of Conditioned Stimuli
- This influences the course of both appetitive and aversive classical conditioning.
- More intense conditioned stimuli are more effective in accelerating the acquisition of conditioned responses.
- It means that the more intense the conditioned stimulus, the fewer are the number of acquisition trials needed for conditioning
OPERANT/INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING
- This type of conditioning was first investigated by B.F. Skinner. Skinner studied occurrence of voluntary responses when an organism operates on the environment.
- Operants are those behaviours or responses, which are emitted by animals and human beings voluntarily and are under their control.
- The term operant is used because the organism operates on the environment.
- Conditioning of operant behaviour is called operant conditioning.
- Skinner conducted his studies on rats and pigeons in specially made boxes, called theSkinner Box
- the response is instrumental in getting the food. That is why, this type of learning is also called instrumental conditioning.
Determinants of Operant Conditioning
You have noted that operant or instrumental
conditioning is a form of learning in which
behaviour is learned, maintained or changed
through its consequences. Such consequences
are called reinforcers. A reinforcer is defined
as any stimulus or event, which increases the
probability of the occurrence of a (desired)
response. A reinforcer has numerous features,
which affect the course and strength of a
response. They include its types – positive or
negative, number or frequency, quality –
superior or inferior, and schedule – continuous
or intermittent (partial). All these features
influence the course of operant conditioning.
Another factor that influences this type of
learning is the nature of the response or
behaviour that is to be conditioned. The
interval or length of time that lapses between
occurrence of response and reinforcement also
influences operant learning. Let us examine
some of these factors in detail.
Types of Reinforcement
Reinforcement may be positive or negative.
Positive reinforcement involves stimuli that
have pleasant consequences. They strengthen
and maintain the responses that have caused
them to occur. Positive reinforcers satisfy
needs, which include food, water, medals,
praise, money, status, information, etc.
Negative reinforcers involve unpleasant and
painful stimuli. Responses that lead organisms
to get rid of painful stimuli or avoid and escape
from them provide negative reinforcement.
Thus, negative reinforcement leads to learning
of avoidance and escape responses. For
instance, one learns to put on woollen clothes,
burn firewood or use electric heaters to avoid
the unpleasant cold weather. One learns to
move away from dangerous stimuli because
they provide negative reinforcement. It may
be noted that negative reinforcement is not
punishment. Use of punishment reduces or
suppresses the response while a negative
reinforcer increases the probability of
avoidance or escape response. For instance,
drivers and co-drivers wear their seat belts to
avoid getting injured in case of an accident or
to avoid being fined by the traffic police.
It should be understood that no
punishment suppresses a response
permanently. Mild and delayed punishment
has no effect. The stronger the punishment,
the more lasting is the suppression effect but
it is not permanent.
Sometimes punishment has no effect
irrespective of its intensity. On the contrary,
the punished person may develop dislike and
hatred for the punishing agent or the person
who administers the punishment.
Number of Reinforcement and other Features
It refers to the number of trials on which an
organism has been reinforced or rewarded.
Amount of reinforcement means how much
of reinforcing stimulus (food or water or
intensity of pain causing agent) one receives
on each trial. Quality of reinforcement refers
to the kind of reinforcer. Chickpeas or pieces
of bread are of inferior quality as compared
with raisins or pieces of cake as reinforcer.
The course of operant conditioning is usually
accelerated to an extent as the number,
amount, and quality of reinforcement
increases.
Schedules of Reinforcement
A reinforcement schedule is the arrangement
of the delivery of reinforcement during
conditioning trials. Each schedule of
reinforcement influences the course of
conditioning in its own way; and thus
conditioned responses occur with differential
characteristics. The organism being subjected
to operant conditioning may be given
reinforcement in every acquisition trial or in
some trials it is given and in others it is
omitted. Thus, the reinforcement may be
continuous or intermittent. When a desired
response is reinforced every time it occurs we
call it continuous reinforcement. In contrast,
in intermittent schedules responses are
sometimes reinforced, sometimes not. It is
known as partial reinforcement and has been
found to produce greater resistance to
extinction – than is found with continuous
reinforcement.
Delayed Reinforcement
The effectiveness of reinforcement is
dramatically altered by delay in the occurrence
of reinforcement. It is found that delay in the
delivery of reinforcement leads to poorer level
of performance. It can be easily shown by
asking children which reward they will prefer
for doing some chore. Smaller rewards
immediately after doing the chore will be
preferred rather than a big one after a long
gap
Key Learning Processes
When learning takes place, be it classical or
operant conditioning, it involves the
occurrence of certain processes. These include
reinforcement, extinction or non-occurrence
of learned response, generalisation of
learning to other stimuli under some
specifiable conditions, discrimination
between reinforcing and non-reinforcing
stimuli, and spontaneous recovery.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is the operation of
administering a reinforcer by the experimenter.
Reinforcers are stimuli that increase the rate
or probability of the responses that precede.
We have noted that reinforced responses
increase in rate, while non-reinforced
responses decrease in rate. A positive
reinforcer increases the rate of response that
precedes its presentation. Negative reinforcers
increase the rate of the response that precedes
their removal or termination. The reinforcers
may be primary or secondary. A primary
reinforcer is biologically important since it
determines the organism’s survival (e.g., food
for a hungry organism). A secondary reinforcer
is one which has acquired characteristics of
the reinforcer because of the organism’s
experience with the environment. We
frequently use money, praise, and grades as
reinforcers. They are called secondary
reinforcers. Systematic use of reinforcers can
lead to the desired response. Such a response
is shaped by reinforcing successive
approximations to the desired response.
Extinction
Extinction means disappearance of a learned
response due to removal of reinforcement from
the situation in which the response used to
occur. If the occurrence of CS-CR is not
followed by the US in classical conditioning,
or lever pressing is no more followed by food
pellets in the Skinner box, the learned
behaviour will gradually be weakened and
ultimately disappear.
Learning shows resistance to extinction.
It means that even though the learned
response is now not reinforced, it would
continue to occur for sometime. However, with
increasing number of trials without
reinforcement, the response strength
gradually diminishes and ultimately it stops
occurring. How long a learned response shows
resistance to extinction depends on a number
of factors. It has been found that with
increasing number of reinforced trials
resistance to extinction increases and learned
response reaches its highest level. At this level
performance gets stabilised. After that the
number of trials do not make a difference in
the response strength. Resistance to extinction
increases with increasing number of
reinforcements during acquisition trials,
beyond that any increase in number of
reinforcement reduces the resistance to
extinction. Studies have also indicated that
as the amount of reinforcement (number of
food pellets) increases during acquisition
trials, resistance to extinction decreases.
If reinforcement is delayed during
acquisition trials, the resistance to extinction
increases. Reinforcement in every acquisition
trial makes the learned response to be less
resistant to extinction. In contrast,
intermittent or partial reinforcement during
acquisition trials makes a learned response
more resistant to extinction.
Generalisation and Discrimination
The processes of generalisation and
discrimination occur in all kinds of learning.
However, they have been extensively
investigated in the context of conditioning.
Suppose an organism is conditioned to elicit a
CR (saliva secretion or any other reflexive
response) on presentation of a CS (light or
sound of bell). After conditioning is established,
and another stimulus similar to the CS (e.g.,
ringing of telephone) is presented, the organism
makes the conditioned response to it. This
phenomenon of responding similarly to similar
stimuli is known as generalisation. Again,
suppose a child has learned the location of a
jar of a certain size and shape in which sweets
are kept. Even when the child’s mother is not
around, the child finds the jar and obtains the
sweets. This is a learned operant. Now the
sweets are kept in another jar of a different
size and shape and at a different location in
the kitchen. In the absence of the mother the
child locates the jar and obtains the sweets.
This is also an example of generalisation. When
a learned response occurs or is elicited by a
new stimulus, it is called generalisation.
Another process, which is complimentary
to generalisation, is called discrimination.
Generalisation is due to similarity while
discrimination is a response due to difference.
For example, suppose a child is conditioned
to be afraid of a person with a long moustache
and wearing black clothes. In subsequent
situation, when s/he meets another person
dressed in black clothes with a beard, the child
shows signs of fear. The child’s fear is
generalised. S/he meets another stranger who
is wearing grey clothes and is clean-shaven.
The child shows no fear. This is an example of
discrimination. Occurrence of generalisation
means failure of discrimination.
Discriminative response depends on the
discrimination capacity or discrimination
learning of the organism.
Spontaneous Recovery
Spontaneous recovery occurs after a learned
response is extinguished. Suppose an
organism has learned to make a response for
getting reinforcement, then the response is
extinguished and some time lapses. A question
now may be asked, whether the response is
completely extinguished, and will not occur if
the CS is presented. It has been demonstrated
that after lapse of considerable time, the
learned or CR recovers and occurs to the CS.
The amount of spontaneous recovery depends
on the duration of the time lapsed after the
extinction session. The longer the duration of
time lapsed, the greater is the recovery of
learned response. Such recovery occurs
spontaneously. Fig.6.3 shows the
phenomenon of spontaneous recovery.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
The next form of learning takes place by
observing others. Earlier this form of learning
was called imitation. Bandura and his
colleagues in a series of experimental studies
investigated observational learning in detail.
In this kind of learning, human beings learn
social behaviours, therefore, it is sometimes
called social learning. In many situations
individuals do not know how to behave. They
observe others and emulate their behaviour.
This form of learning is called modeling.
Examples of observational learning
abound in our social life. Fashion designers
employ tall, pretty, and gracious young girls
and tall, smart, and well-built young boys for
popularising clothes of different designs and
fabrics. People observe them on televised
fashion shows and advertisements in
magazines and newspapers. They imitate these
models. Observing superiors and likeable
persons and then emulating their behaviour
in a novel social situation is a common
experience.
In order to understand the nature of
observational learning we may refer to the
studies conducted by Bandura. In one of his
well-known experimental study, Bandura
showed a film of five minutes duration to
children. The film shows that in a large room
there are numerous toys including a large
sized ‘Bobo’ doll. Now a grown-up boy enters
the room and looks around. The boy starts
showing aggressive behaviour towards the toys
in general and the bobo doll in particular. He
hits the doll, throws it on the floor, kicking it
and sitting on it. This film has three versions.
In one version a group of children see the boy
(model) being rewarded and praised by an
adult for being aggressive to the doll. In the
second version another group of children see
the boy being punished for his aggressive
behaviour. In the third version the third group
of children are not shown the boy being either
rewarded or punished.
After viewing a specific version of the film
all the three groups of children were placed in
an experimental room in which similar toys
were placed around. The children were allowed
to play with the toys. These groups were
secretly observed and their behaviours noted.
It was found that those children who saw
aggressive behaviour being rewarded were
most aggressive; children who had seen the
aggressive model being punished were least
aggressive. Thus, in observational learning
observers acquire knowledge by observing the
model’s behaviour, but performance is
influenced by model’s behaviour being
rewarded or punished.
You must have noticed that children
observe adults’ behaviours, at home and
during social ceremonies and functions. They
enact adults in their plays and games. For
instance, young children play games of
marriage ceremonies, birthday parties, thief
and policeman, house keeping, etc. Actually
they enact in their games what they
observe in society, on television, and read in
books.
Children learn most of the social
behaviours by observing and emulating adults.
The way to put on clothes, dress one’s hair,
and conduct oneself in society are learned
through observing others. It has also been
shown that children learn and develop various
personality characteristics through
observational learning. Aggressiveness, prosocial
behaviour, courtesy, politeness,
diligence, and indolence are acquired by this
method of learning.
COGNITIVE LEARNING
Some psychologists view learning in terms of
cognitive processes that underlie it. They have
developed approaches that focus on such
processes that occur during learning rather
than concentrating solely on S-R and S-S
connections, as we have seen in the case of
classical and operant conditioning. Thus, in
cognitive learning, there is a change in what
the learner knows rather than what s/he does.
This form of learning shows up in insight
learning and latent learning.
Insight Learning
Kohler demonstrated a model of learning
which could not be readily explained by
conditioning. He performed a series of
experiments with chimpanzees that involved
solving complex problems. Kohler placed
chimpanzees in an enclosed play area where
food was kept out of their reach. Tools such
as poles and boxes were placed in the
enclosure. The chimpanzees rapidly learned
how to use a box to stand on or a pole to move
the food in their direction. In this experiment,
learning did not occur as a result of trial and
error and reinforcement, but came about in
sudden flashes of insight. The chimpanzees
would roam about the enclosure for some time
and then suddenly would stand on a box, grab
a pole and strike a banana, which was out of
normal reach above the enclosure. The
chimpanzee exhibited what Kohler called
insight learning – the process by which the
solution to a problem suddenly becomes clear.
In a normal experiment on insight
learning, a problem is presented, followed by
a period of time when no apparent progress is
made and finally a solution suddenly emerges.
In insight learning, sudden solution is the rule.
Once the solution has appeared, it can be
repeated immediately the next time the
problem is confronted. Thus, it is clear that
what is learned is not a specific set of
conditioned associations between stimuli and
responses but a cognitive relationship between
a means and an end. As a result, insight
learning can be generalised to other similar
problem situations.
Latent Learning
Another type of cognitive learning is known
as latent learning. In latent learning, a new
behaviour is learned but not demonstrated
until reinforcement is provided for displaying
it. Tolman made an early contribution to the
concept of latent learning. To have an idea of
latent learning, we may briefly understand his
experiment. Tolman put two groups of rats in
a maze and gave them an opportunity to
explore. In one group, rats found food at the
end of the maze and soon learned to make
their way rapidly through the maze. On the
other hand, rats in the second group were not
rewarded and showed no apparent signs of
learning. But later, when these rats were
reinforced, they ran through the maze as
efficiently as the rewarded group.
Tolman contended that the unrewarded
rats had learned the layout of the maze early
in their explorations. They just never displayed
their latent learning until the reinforcement
was provided. Instead, the rats developed a
cognitive map of the maze, i.e. a mental
representation of the spatial locations and
directions, which they needed to reach their
goal.
VERBAL LEARNING
Verbal learning is different from conditioning
and is limited to human beings. Human
beings, as you must have observed, acquire
knowledge about objects, events, and their
features largely in terms of words. Words then
come to be associated with one another.
Psychologists have developed a number of
methods to study this kind of learning in a
laboratory setting. Each method is used to
investigate specific questions about learning
of some kind of verbal material. In the study
of verbal learning, psychologists use a variety
of materials including nonsense syllables,
familiar words, unfamiliar words (see Table
6.2 for sample items), sentences, and
paragraphs.
Methods used in Studying Verbal Learning
1. Paired-Associates Learning : This method
is similar to S-S conditioning and S-R learning.
It is used in learning some foreign language
equivalents of mother tongue words. First, a
list of paired-associates is prepared. The first
word of the pair is used as the stimulus, and
the second word as the response. Members of
each pair may be from the same language or
two different languages. A list of such words
is given in Table 6.3.
The first members of the pairs (stimulus
term) are nonsense syllables (consonantvowel-consonant),
and the second are English
nouns (response term). The learner is first
shown both the stimulus-response pairs
together, and is instructed to remember and
recall the response after the presentation of
each stimulus term. After that a learning trial
begins. One by one the stimulus words are
presented and the participant tries to give the
correct response term. In case of failure, s/he
is shown the response word. In one trial all
the stimulus terms are shown. Trials continue
until the participant gives all the response
words without a single error. The total number
of trials taken to reach the criterion becomes
the measure of paired-associates learning.
2. Serial Learning : This method of verbal
learning is used to find out how participants
learn the lists of verbal items, and what
processes are involved in it. First, lists of verbal
items, i.e. nonsense syllables, most familiar
or least familiar words, interrelated words, etc.
are prepared. The participant is presented the
entire list and is required to produce the items
in the same serial order as in the list. In the
first trial, the first item of the list is shown,
and the participant has to produce the second
item. If s/he fails to do so within the prescribed
time, the experimenter presents the second
item. Now this item becomes the stimulus and
the participant has to produce the third item
that is the response word. If s/he fails, the
experimenter gives the correct item, which
becomes the stimulus item for the fourth word.
This procedure is called serial anticipation
method. Learning trials continue until the
participant correctly anticipates all the items
in the given order.
3. Free Recall : In this method, participants
are presented a list of words, which they read
and speak out. Each word is shown at a fixed
rate of exposure duration. Immediately after
the presentation of the list, the participants
are required to recall the words in any order
they can. Words in the list may be interrelated
or unrelated. More than ten words are
included in the list. The presentation order of
words varies from trial to trial. This method is
used to study how participants organise words
for storage in memory. Studies indicate that
the items placed in the beginning or end of
the lists are easier to recall than those placed
in the middle, which are more difficult to
recall.
Determinants of Verbal Learning
Verbal learning has been subjected to the most
extensive experimental investigations. These
studies have indicated that the course of verbal
learning is influenced by a number of factors.
The most important determinants are the
different features of the verbal material to be
learned. They include length of the list to be
learned and meaningfulness of the material.
Meaningfulness of material is measured in
several ways. The number of associations
elicited in a fixed time, familiarity of the
material and frequency of usage, relations
among the words in the list, and sequential
dependence of each word of the list on the
preceding words, are used for assessing
meaningfulness. Lists of nonsense syllables are
available with different levels of associations.
The nonsense syllables should be selected
from a list containing the same association
value. On the basis of research findings, the
following generalisations have been made.
Learning time increases with increase in
length of the list, occurrence of words with low
association values or lack of relations among
the items in the list. The more time it takes to
learn the list, stronger will be the learning. In
this respect psychologists have found that the
total time principle operates. This principle
states that a fixed amount of time is necessary
to learn a fixed amount of material, regardless
of the number of trials into which that time is
divided. The more time it takes to learn, the
stronger becomes the learning.
If participants are not restricted to the
serial learning method and are allowed to give
free recall, verbal learning becomes
organisational. It implies that in free recall
participants recall the words not in their order
of presentation, but in a new order or
sequence. Bousfield first demonstrated this
experimentally. He made a list of 60 words
that consisted of 15 words drawn from each
of the four semantic categories, i.e. names,
animals, professions, and vegetables. These
words were presented to participants one by
one in random order. The participants were
required to make free recall of the words.
However, they recalled the words of each
category together. He called it category
clustering. It is worth noting that, though,
the words were presented randomly the
participants organised them category-wise in
recall. Here category clustering occurred
because of the nature of the list. It has also
been demonstrated that free recall is always
organised subjectively. Subjective organisation
shows that the participants organise words
or items in their individual ways and recall
accordingly.
Verbal learning is usually intentional but
a person may learn some features of the words
unintentionally or incidentally. In this kind of
learning, participants notice features such as
whether two or more words rhyme, start with
identical letters, have same vowels, etc. Thus,
verbal learning is both intentional as well as
incidental.
CONCEPT LEARNING
The world, in which we live, consists of
innumerable objects, events and living beings.
These objects and events are different in their
structures and functions. One of the many
things human beings have to do is to organise
the objects, events, animals, etc., into
categories so that within the category, objects
are treated as equivalent even though they are
different in their features. Such
categorisations involve concept learning.
What is a Concept?
A concept is a category that is used to refer to
a number of objects and events. Animal, fruit,
building, and crowd are examples of concepts
or categories. It may be noted that the terms,
concept and category, are interchangeably
used. A concept is defined as ‘a set of features
or attributes connected by some rule’. Instances
of a concept are those objects or events or
behaviours, which have common features. A
feature is any characteristic or aspect of an
object or event or living organism that is
observed in them, and can be considered
equivalent to some features observed or
discriminated in other objects. Features are of
innumerable kinds and their discriminability
depends upon the degree of the observer’s
perceptual sensitivity. Properties like colour,
size, number, shape, smoothness, roughness,
softness, and hardness are called features.
Rules that are used to connect the features
to form a concept may be very simple or
complex. A rule is an instruction to do
something. Keeping in view the rules that are
used in defining concepts, psychologists have
studied two types of concepts : artificial
concepts and natural concepts or categories.
Artificial concepts are those that are welldefined
and rules connecting the features are
precise and rigid. In a well-defined concept the
features that represent the concept are both
singly necessary and jointly sufficient.
Every object must have all the features in order
to become an instance of the concept. On the
other hand, natural concepts or categories are
usually ill-defined. Numerous features are
found in the instances of a natural category.
Such concepts include biological objects, real
world products, and human artefacts such as
tools, clothes, houses, etc.
Let us take the example of the concept of
a square. It is a well-defined concept. It must
have four attributes, i.e. closed figure, four
sides, each side of equal length, and equal
angles. Thus a square consists of four features
connected by a conjunctive rule.
In Figure 6.4 there are 16 cards having
two shapes – square and triangle, two shadespink
and grey, signs of cross on top or bottom,
and small circle on right side or left side. With
the help of these cards one can create a
number of concepts by using different rules.
The set of features that are connected by some
rule are called relevant features. The features
that are not included in the rule are considered
to be irrelevant features. For example, in the
cards shown in Figure 6.4 there are four
features — shape, shade, cross or no cross
on the top, and circle on the right or left side.
In creating a conjunctive concept by using
two features one may use shape and side as
the relevant ones, and leave out two others as
irrelevant. For such a concept, the exemplars
and non-exemplars are given in Figure 6.5.
You will study more about concepts in Chapter
8 on thinking
SKILL LEARNING
Nature of Skills
A skill is defined as the ability to perform some
complex task smoothly and efficiently. Car
driving, airplane piloting, ship navigating
shorthand writing, and writing and reading
are examples of skills. Such skills are learned
by practice and exercise. A skill consists of a
chain of perceptual motor responses or as a
sequence of S-R associations.
Phases of Skill Acquisition
Skill learning passes through several
qualitatively different phases. With each
successive attempt at learning a skill, one’s
performance becomes smoother and less effort
demanding. In other words, it becomes more
spontaneous or automatic. It has also been
shown that in each phase the performance
improves. In transition from one phase to the
next, when the level of performance stands
still, it is called performance plateau. Once
the next phase begins, performance starts
improving and its level starts going up.
One of the most influential accounts of the
phases of skill acquisition is presented by
Fitts. According to him, skill learning passes
through three phases, viz. cognitive,
associative and autonomous. Each phase or
stage of skill learning involves different types
of mental processes. In the cognitive phase of
skill learning, the learner has to understand
and memorise the instructions, and also
understand how the task has to be performed.
In this phase, every outside cue, instructional
demand, and one’s response outcome have to
be kept alive in consciousness.
The second phase is associative. In this
phase, different sensory inputs or stimuli are
linked with appropriate responses. As the
practice increases, errors decrease,
performance improves and time taken is also
reduced. With continued practice, errorless
performance begins, though, the learner has
to be attentive to all the sensory inputs and
maintain concentration on the task. Then the
third phase, i.e. autonomous phase, begins.
In this phase, two important changes take
place in performance: the attentional
demands of the associative phase decrease,
and interference created by external factors
reduces. Finally, skilled performance attains
automaticity with minimal demands on
conscious effort.
Transitions from one phase to the other
clearly show that practice is the only means
of skill learning. One has to keep on exercising
and practicing. As the practice increases,
improvement rate gradually increases; and
automaticity of errorless performance
becomes the hallmark of skill. That is why it
is said that ‘practice makes a man perfect’.
TRANSFER OF LEARNING
The term transfer of learning is often called
transfer of training or transfer effect. It refers
to the effects of prior learning on new learning.
Transfer is considered to be positive if the
earlier learning facilitates current learning. It
is considered to be negative transfer if new
learning is retarded. Absence of facilitative or
retarding effect means zero transfer.
Psychologists use specific experimental
designs in the study of transfer effects. One
such design is presented in Table 6.4
Suppose you want to know whether
learning of English language affects learning
of French. To study this you select a large
sample of participants. Now you randomly
divide the sample into two groups, one to be
used in the experimental condition and the
other as control group. The experimental
group of participants learns English language
for a year and is tested to find out their
achievement in English. In the second year,
they study French. In the end this group is
tested to find out its achievement scores in
French. The control group in the first phase
does not learn English language and just does
its routine work for one year. In the second
year, these participants learn French for a year
and their achievement scores are obtained.
The achievement scores in French of the two
groups are then compared. If the achievement
score of the experimental group is higher than
that of the control group, it implies that
positive transfer has taken place. If the score
is lower than the control group, it means
negative transfer has taken place. If the two
groups perform equally well, then it shows that
transfer effect is zero.
It must be noted that in the study of
transfer effect, a distinction is made between
general transfer and specific transfer. It is
now a well-known fact that prior learning
always leads to positive general transfer. It is
only in specific transfer that transfer effects
are positive or negative, and in some
conditions there is zero effect, though in
reality, due to general transfer, zero transfer
is theoretically untenable. Let us try to
understand the nature of general transfer and
specific transfer.
General (Generic) Transfer
General transfer is not clearly conceptualised
and defined in its details. However, prior
learning predisposes one to learn another task
in a better manner. The learning of one task
warms-up the learner to learn the next task
more conveniently. You must have seen a
cricketer going to the pitch to take her/his
position near the wicket. The cricketer walks
by jumping on one foot then on the other.
S/he moves her/his two hands holding the bat
sideways to loosen up. When you write answers
while appearing at the examination, your
writing is slow and sitting position awkward
for efficient writing. However, you get warmed
up after having written two or three pages. Your
speed increases and your body gets well
adjusted to the writing task. This continues
until the writing of the last answer is over. After
some time, warm-up effect disappears.
Warm-up effect lasts over one session of
learning. Only in that session one can learn
two or more tasks.
Specific Transfer
Whenever an organism learns something, it
consists of a series of stimulus-response
associations. Any task can be understood as a
chain of discriminable stimuli, each of which
has to be associated with a specific response.
Specific transfer means the effect of learning
of task A on learning of task B. The learning of
task A may make the learning of task B easier
or more difficult or have no such effect. Such
transfers depend on similarity-dissimilarity
between the initial learning task and the second
task. The possible relationships between
stimuli and responses are shown in Table 6.5.
3. In the third case, the stimuli are same
but responses are different. In such
conditions also some positive transfer
occurs.
4. In the fourth case, the stimuli are different,
but responses are the same. Therefore new
associations with responses are to be
learned. In this case positive transfer is
obtained.
5. In the fifth case, stimuli and responses are
the same, but associations are altered.
Because of this, alteration negative transfer
occurs in the learning of the second task.
It is so because the associations learned
in the initial task interfere in the learning
of new associations. Such interferences are
discussed in Chapter 7 which deals with
human memory.
On the basis of a long series of
experimental studies, the following
conclusions have been drawn about specific
transfer with reference to the situations shown
in Table 6.5.
1. In the first instance, the initial and transfer
tasks are very different both in stimuli as
well as in responses. Hence no specific
transfer is expected. However, due to the
mechanism of general transfer some
degree of positive transfer may occur.
2. In the second case, the stimuli of the two
tasks are the same and responses are
highly similar. Therefore, maximum
transfer may occur. It has been regularly
shown that in this condition positive
transfer takes place.
FACTORS FACILITATING LEARNING
In the preceding section we examined the
specific determinants of learning, such as
contiguous presentation of CS and US in
classical conditioning; number, amount, and
delay of reinforcement in operant conditioning;
status and attractiveness of models in
observational learning; procedure in verbal
learning; and the nature of rules and
perceptual features of objects and events in
concept learning. Now, we shall discuss some
general determinants of learning. This
discussion is not exhaustive. Rather it deals
with some salient factors only which are found
very important
Continuous vs Partial Reinforcement
In experiments on learning the experimenter
can arrange to deliver reinforcement according
to a specific schedule. In the context of
learning, two kinds of schedules namely
continuous and partial have been found very
important. In continuous reinforcement the
participant is given reinforcement after each
target response. This kind of schedule of
reinforcement produces a high rate of
responding. However, once the reinforcement
is withheld, response rates decrease very
quickly, and the responses acquired under this
schedule tend to extinguish. Since organism
is getting reinforcement on each trial, the
effectiveness of that reinforcer is reduced. In
such schedules where reinforcement is not
continuous, some responses are not
reinforced. Hence, they are called partial or
intermittent reinforcement. There are several
ways in which one might reinforce responses
according to an intermittent schedule. It has
been found that partial reinforcement
schedules often produce very high rates of
responding, particularly when responses are
reinforced according to ratio. In this kind of
schedule, an organism often makes several
responses that are not reinforced. Therefore,
it becomes difficult to tell when a
reinforcement has been discontinued
completely and when it has merely been
delayed. When reinforcement is continuous it
is easier to tell when it has been discontinued.
This kind of difference has been found crucial
for extinction. It has been found that extinction
of a response is more difficult following partial
reinforcement than following continuous
reinforcement. The fact that the responses
acquired under partial reinforcement are
highly resistant to extinction is called partial
reinforcement effect.
Motivation
All living organisms have survival needs and
human beings, in addition, have growth needs.
Motivation is a mental as well as a
physiological state, which arouses an
organism to act for fulfilling the current need.
In other words, motivation energises an
organism to act vigorously for attaining some
goal. Such acts persist until the goal is
attained and the need is satisfied. Motivation
is a prerequisite for learning. Why does a child
forage in the kitchen when the mother is not
in the house? S/he does so because s/he
needs sweets to eat for which s/he is trying to
locate the jar in which sweets are kept. During
the course of foraging the child learns the
location of the jar. A hungry rat is placed in a
box. The animal forages in the box for food.
Incidentally it presses a lever and food drops
in the box. With repeated experience of such
activity, the animal learns to press the lever
immediately after the animal is placed there.
Have you ever asked yourself why you are
studying psychology and other subjects in
Class XI? You are doing so to pass with good
marks or grades in your final examination.
The more motivated you are, the more hard
work you do for learning. Your motivation for
learning something arises from two sources.
You learn many things because you enjoy
them (intrinsic motivation) or they provide you
the means for attaining some other goal
(extrinsic motivation).
Preparedness for Learning
The members of different species are very
different from one another in their sensory
capacities and response abilities. The
mechanisms necessary for establishing
associations, such as S-S or S-R, also vary
from species to species. It can be said that
species have biological constraints on their
learning capacities. The kinds of S-S or S-R
learning an organism can easily acquire
depends on the associative mechanism it is
genetically endowed with or prepared for. A
particular kind of associative learning is easy
for apes or human beings but may be
extremely difficult and sometimes impossible
for cats and rats. It implies that one can learn
only those associations for which one is
genetically prepared.
The concept of preparedness may be best
understood as a continuum or dimension, on
one end of which are those learning tasks or
associations which are easy for the members
of some species, and on the other end are those
learning tasks for which those members are
not prepared at all and cannot learn them. In
the middle of the continuum fall those tasks
and associations for which the members are
neither prepared nor unprepared. They can
learn such tasks, but only with great difficulty
and persistence.
THE LEARNER : LEARNING STYLES
You may have observed that some children,
sometimes from the same family, perform well
in school whereas others do not. There has
been a great deal of research on learning styles
over the last several decades. It demonstrates
the differences in the way people learn within
the same class, culture, community or socioeconomic
group and those belonging to
different groups.
Learning style may be defined as
‘a learner’s consistent way of responding to
and using stimuli in the context of learning’. In
other words, it is ‘the way in which each
learner begins to concentrate, processes, and
retains new and complex information’. It may
be noted that this interaction occurs differently
for everyone. For example, you may have
noticed that children in your class are unique
in their personalities, cultural experiences,
and values. Different students prefer different
learning environments, learning modalities
and they all have unique strengths, talents,
and weaknesses.
Therefore, it is necessary to examine each
individual’s personal characteristics to
determine what is most likely to trigger each
learner’s concentration, maintain it, respond
to her or his natural processing style and
facilitate long-term memory. There are various
instruments which are used to determine a
student’s learning style.
Learning styles are mainly derived from
Perceptual Modality, Information Processing,
and Personality Patterns. A brief description
of these approaches are given below:
1. Perceptual Modality are biologically-based
reactions to the physical environment. It
refers to the preferences of persons
through which they take in information
such as auditory, visual, smell,
kinesthetic, and tactile.
2. Information Processing distinguishes
between the way we are structured to
think, solve problems, and remember
information. This may be thought of as the
way we process information. For example,
active/reflective, sensing/intuitive,
sequential/global, serial/simultaneous,
etc.
3. Personality Patterns are the way we
interact with our surroundings. Each one
of us has a preferred, consistent, and
distinct way of perceiving, organising, and
retaining information. This approach
focuses on understanding how personality
affects the way people interact with the
environment, and how this affects the way
individuals respond to each other within
the learning environment.
There are several dimensions along which
learning styles differ. For example, Anderson
differentiated between analytic and relational
styles of learning. These have been illustrated
in Table 6.6. It is clear that people with a
relational style learn material best through
exposure to a full unit or phenomenon. They
comprehend parts of the unit only by
understanding their relationship to the whole.
On the other hand, people with an analytical
learning style learn more easily when
information is presented step by step in a
cumulative sequential pattern that builds
towards a conceptual understanding.
One must remember that the various
learning styles are points along a scale that
help us to discover the different forms of
mental representation. They do not
characterise people. Therefore, we should not
divide the population into a set category (e.g.,
visual person, extrovert, etc.). We are capable
of learning under any style, no matter what
our preference may be.
`LEARNING DISABILITIES
You must have heard, observed or read that
thousands of children get enrolled for
education in schools. Some of them, however,
find the demands of educational process too
difficult to meet, and they drop out. Such
students are called “drop-outs”. The reasons
for this are numerous, such as sensory
impairment, mental retardation, social and
emotional disturbance, poor economic
conditions of the family, cultural beliefs and
norms or other environmental influences.
Apart from these conditions, there is another
source of obstacle in the continuance of
education that is called learning disabilities.
It makes school learning, i.e. acquisition of
knowledge and skills too difficult to grapple
with. Such children also fail to move forward
in their learning activities.
Learning disability is a general term. It
refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders
manifested in terms of difficulty in the
acquisition of learning, reading, writing,
speaking, reasoning, and mathematical
activities. The sources of such disorders are
inherent in the child. It is presumed that these
difficulties originate from problems with the
functioning of the central nervous system. It
may occur in conjunction with physical
handicaps, sensory impairment, mental
retardation, or without them.
It must be noted that learning disabilities
may be observed as a distinct handicapping
condition in children of average to superior
intelligence, adequate sensory motor systems,
and adequate learning opportunities. If it is
not remedied, it may continue throughout life
and affect self-esteem, vocation, social
relations, and daily living activities.
Symptoms of Learning Disabilities
There are many symptoms of learning
disabilities. They become manifest in different
combinations in children who suffer from this
disorder irrespective of their intelligence,
motivation, and hard work for learning.
1. Difficulties in writing letters, words and
phrases, reading out text, and speaking
appear quite frequently. Quite often they
have listening problems, although they
may not have auditory defects. Such
children are very different from others in
developing learning strategies and plans.
2. Learning-disabled children have disorders
of attention. They get easily distracted and
cannot sustain attention on one point for
long. More often than not, attentional
deficiency leads to hyperactivity, i.e. they
are always moving, doing different things,
trying to manipulate things incessantly.
3. Poor space orientation and inadequate
sense of time are common symptoms.
Such children do not get easily oriented to
new surroundings and get lost. They lack
a sense of time and are late or sometimes
too early in their routine work. They also
show confusion in direction and misjudge
right, left, up and down.
4. Learning-disabled children have poor
motor coordination and poor manual
dexterity. This is evident in their lack of
balance, inability to sharpen pencil, handle
doorknobs, difficulty in learning to ride a
bicycle, etc.
5. These children fail to understand and
follow oral directions for doing things.
6. They misjudge relationships as to which
classmates are friendly and which ones are
indifferent. They fail to learn and
understand body language.
7. Learning-disabled children usually show
perceptual disorders. These may include
visual, auditory, tactual, and kinesthetic
misperception. They fail to differentiate a
call-bell from the ring of the telephone. It
is not that they do not have sensory acuity.
They simply fail to use it in performance.
8. Fairly large number of learning-disabled
children have dyslexia. They quite often
fail to copy letters and words; for example,
they fail to distinguish between b and d,
p and q, P and 9, was and saw, unclear
and nuclear, etc. They fail to organise verbal
materials.
It must be noted that learning
disabilities are not incurable. Remedial
teaching methods go a long way in helping
them to learn and become like other students.
Educational psychologists have developed
appropriate techniques for correcting most
of the symptoms related to learning
disabilities.
APPLICATIONS OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES
The principles of learning have great value for
enriching human life in all spheres of life. All
activities and behaviours that make personal,
social, and economic life peaceful and
pleasurable are learned. Their learning should
be psychologically guided. Contemporary
psychologists have developed techniques and
procedures based on the principles of classical
and operant conditioning, social learning,
verbal learning, concept learning, and skill
learning for improving many aspects of life.
We can have a glimpse of the applications of
learning principles in four areas, i.e.
organisations, in treatment of maladjustive
behaviours, in rearing children, and school
learning.
In organisations, a number of problems
such as absenteeism, frequent medical leave,
indiscipline, and lack of proper skills pose
serious problems. Applying the principles of
learning may solve these problems. To
increase attendance and reduce absenteeism
an interesting device is used in some
organisations. At the end of every third month,
name slips of employees, not being absent on
a single working day are placed in a drum.
Four to five per cent of the names are randomly
drawn and they are given attractive rewards
for not being absent on a single working day.
Such rewards have been found to reduce
absenteeism. To increase the number of
employees, who have not gone on medical leave
for full one year, various benefits are given.
Such partial rewards reduce the incidence of
medical leave. With a view to improving
discipline, managers start functioning as
models for employees, or employees are placed
under such model managers.
Based on the principles of learning, a
number of therapeutic procedures have been
developed to modify maladaptive and socially
incapacitating habits and behaviours. In these
procedures, the principle of extinction is
employed. In the case of those children and
adults who exhibit irrational and unfounded
fear with accompanying avoidance behaviour,
implosive therapy and flooding are used.
Implosive therapy starts with the person
imagining their most feared form of contact
with the feared object, accompanied by vivid
verbal descriptions by the therapist. The
therapist functions as a coach. On the other
hand, flooding is exposure that takes place in
vivo (e.g., with an actual feared object) and is
considered to be the most effective of all
treatments for fear. To help those suffering
from excessive anxieties and fears, the
technique of systematic desensitisation is
used. It is a form of behaviour therapy used
to reduce phobic patients’ anxiety responses
through counterconditioning, i.e. an attempt
to reverse the process of classical conditioning
by associating the crucial stimulus with a new
conditioned response. In order to eliminate
habits that are undesirable and injurious for
health and happiness, aversion therapy is
used. The therapist arranges things in such a
way that occurrence of maladjustive habits
generates painful experiences and to avoid
them clients learn to give them up. For
example, alcohol is paired with an emetic drug
(which induces severe nausea and vomiting)
so that nausea and vomiting become a
conditioned response to alcohol. Modeling
and systematic use of reinforcement for
shaping and developing competence are
extensively used. Persons suffering from
excessive shyness and having difficulties in
interpersonal interactions are subjected to
assertive learning. This therapy is also based
on the principles of learning. There are persons
who lose mental peace with accelerated rate
of breathing, loss of appetite, and rise in blood
pressure at the slightest provocation. In such
cases psychotherapists give biofeedback
treatment. This technique is based on the
interaction between classical and instrumental
conditioning. In biofeedback, a bodily function
(such as heart rate or blood pressure) is
monitored and information about the function
is fed back to the person to facilitate improved
control of the physiological process. You will
read in detail about these therapies in Class
XII.
The principles of learning are widely used
in teaching. Educational objectives are decided
after analysing the instructional tasks and
fitting them into various types of learning such
as S-S or S-R, verbal, observational, and skill
learning. Students are told what they have to
learn and appropriate practice conditions
are provided. Students are made active
participants in the acquisition of information,
meaning, and correct responses. Teachers act
as models and mentors for students to
emulate them with a view to promote
appropriate social behaviours and personal
habits. Students are provided ample
opportunities for practice as they are required
to do homework. Skills are analysed as S-R
chains and students are allowed to learn skills
practically.
The principles of learning are best applied
in child rearing provided both the parents are
aware of the principles of learning. By using
the classical conditioning procedure children
are made to learn necessary signs of danger
and safety. The behaviour of children can
easily be modified and shaped through the
use of operant conditioning procedure. By
using rewards judiciously parents can make
children enthusiastic learners. As models and
mentors, parents make children socially
skillful, duty oriented and resourceful.